Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution

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Charles Pratt, 1st Earl Camden by Nathaniel Dance, (later Sir Nathaniel Dance-Holland, Bt)

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James Madison

US Supreme Court Justice Potter Stewart - 1976 official portrait

== Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution ==

The Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution is part of the Bill of Rights. It protects people from unreasonable searches and seizures by the government. The text of the Fourth Amendment reads:

"The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized."

Historical Background

The Fourth Amendment was introduced in 1789 by James Madison as part of the proposed Bill of Rights. It was ratified on December 15, 1791. The amendment was influenced by the colonial opposition to the Writs of Assistance, which were general search warrants used by the British government.

Key Concepts

• Unreasonable Searches and Seizures: The Fourth Amendment protects against searches and seizures that are deemed unreasonable under the law. This generally means that law enforcement must have a warrant or a valid exception to the warrant requirement.
• Warrants: A warrant must be issued by a judge or magistrate and must be based on probable cause. It must also specify the place to be searched and the items to be seized.
• Probable Cause: This is a reasonable belief, based on facts, that a crime has been, is being, or will be committed.

Legal Interpretations

The interpretation of the Fourth Amendment has evolved over time through various United States Supreme Court decisions. Some landmark cases include:

• Mapp v. Ohio (1961): This case established the exclusionary rule, which prevents evidence obtained in violation of the Fourth Amendment from being used in court.
• Katz v. United States (1967): This case expanded the Fourth Amendment protections to include certain forms of electronic surveillance.
• Terry v. Ohio (1968): This case allowed for "stop and frisk" procedures under certain conditions, even without a warrant.

Exceptions to the Warrant Requirement

There are several exceptions to the warrant requirement, including:

• Consent: If a person voluntarily consents to a search, a warrant is not needed.
• Plain View: If evidence is in plain view of law enforcement, it can be seized without a warrant.
• Search Incident to Arrest: Law enforcement can search a person and their immediate surroundings without a warrant when making an arrest.
• Exigent Circumstances: In emergency situations where obtaining a warrant is impractical, a search may be conducted without one.

Impact and Controversies

The Fourth Amendment has been the subject of much debate and controversy, particularly in the context of modern technology and national security. Issues such as mass surveillance, data privacy, and the use of drones for law enforcement purposes continue to challenge the boundaries of Fourth Amendment protections.

Related Pages

• Bill of Rights
• United States Constitution
• James Madison
• Mapp v. Ohio
• Katz v. United States
• Terry v. Ohio
• Exclusionary rule
• Probable cause
• Warrant (law)